MODERNISM, MODERNITY AND
MODERNISATION IN AUSTRALIA (1919-1939)
Prior to the twentieth century, hospitals were associated with poverty, lower-class and death. They were crowded, unhygienic and had a bad reputation. The wealthy were treated at home by hired nurses and doctors, and tried as much as possible to avoid hospitals. Although hospitals were public institutions during this era, they were not public sites; they had controlled visiting hours and ground access was strictly monitored. Hospitals were typically characterised with one or two stories, and some had a front and a back area which were surrounded by fences and shrubberies. This isolated hospitals from the rest of society.
It was not until the interwar period (1919-1939) where Modernism, modernity and modernisation prominently took off in Australia; Major influences such as World War One and the Great Depression initiated a push in society towards regeneration and positive growth. The emergence of industrialisation and urbanisation forced Australia to adapt to new developments, materials and technologies for a better lifestyle. Industrial production directly affected architects of the twentieth century by facilitating the creation of new materials with which to build. New materials such as reinforced concrete, steel and glass were inexpensive and mass produced, opening a new doorway for architects and designers in the evolution of Modern design. Major cities like Sydney and Melbourne embraced the technological advancements of this era, with designers driving these forces for change. New technological advancements such as elevators, escalators and steel frames were introduced to Australian buildings by architects who were very much influenced by international designers and their designs. Architects were no longer faced with engineering limitations of the past, but instead given flexibility and the opportunity to embrace the new materials, technologies and methods available. There were also many technological advancements in the medical field during the interwar period; Penicillin (discovered in 1928), and the blood bank system (created between 1904-1950), as well as new surgery procedures, sterilization and x-rays which changed the identity of hospitals to one which housed new medical treatment, technology and promoted healthful modernity within society. Hospitals were now seen as an emblem of social and cultural progress towards modernity.
Hospitals in Australia during the interwar period had a deliberately modernist and functionalist style. The major transformation from hospitals prior to the twentieth century and hospitals during the interwar period was primarily based around the notion of an open and public place. Privacy was reduced in hospitals through the removal of fences and screening shrubberies, and balconies, car parks, larger windows and multiple entrances to hospitals were instead introduced. Patients were now not so isolated, and it was now more acceptable to display patients who were receiving what was considered ‘optimum medical treatment’. White hospital interiors and exteriors represented cleanliness and hygiene. An architect of this period, Mark Wigley, describes hospital interiors during this era as “the doctor’s white coat, the white tiles of the bathroom, the white walls of the hospital… It is about a certain look of cleanliness” (Willis 2002, para.3). There was also great emphasis on natural light to link hospitals as a place of cure and present an image of healthful modernity. It was believed that sun exposure would cure “a range of orthopaedic and respiratory conditions such as tuberculosis” (Burke 2012, p.1020) and therefore hospitals constructed in this era had a lot more glass and many large windows.
The increase in hospitals during the interwar period could not have come at a better time; Hospitals were originally crowded due to the growing population, especially the middle class. Australia was also recovering from the great depression and new hospitals were practical and made good economic sense. This was because money was not put towards unnecessary embellishment and decorations, which fitted the hospitals modernist style. They also signified how Australia was trying to create a better future for the middle and working classes who suffered badly during the depression. Instead of covering up financial disaster, these new hospitals signified a good investment for the future and promoted social harmony within Australia.
The most prolific hospital design firms of the period were Stephenson & Meldrum and Leighton Irwin & Co. The work of Stephenson & Meldrum (now Stephenson & Turner) were very much influenced by the modernist, European hospitals and sanatoria of the 1920’s and 30’s, which had been visited on Arthur Stephenson’s overseas trip in 1932 to study hospital design. He described European Modernism among hospitals as “rationalising architecture… to express in the simplest form the function of the building in the most appropriate materials” (Willis 2002, para.7). As well as Europe, Stephenson also continued his research trip across America and Britain, where he admired each hospitals architecture, materials and technologies. He was particularly inspired by Bijvoet & Duiker’s Zonnestraal Sanatorium (1928) in the Netherlands which was almost constructed entirely out of glass. The semicircular balconies in many Swiss hospitals, including the Loryspital in Berne, were also of inspiration to Stephenson since they were enclosed with glass to allowed maximum sunlight into the building. Other hospitals of particular significance to Stephenson included the clean, functionalist forms of the Weissenhofseidlung hospital in Germany, the Paimio Sanatorium in Finland and the Waiblingen hospital in Stuggart.
This research trip was originally intended for the design of St Vincent’s Hospital in Fitzroy however it became too late in the design process for any significant changes to be made. Nevertheless, the Stephenson & Meldrum’s hospitals designed after the 1938 trip are arguably ‘the most genuinely modern buildings of that era in Australia’ (Willis 2002, para.10).
Immediately after the completion of the St Vincent’s Hospital, the former Mercy Hospital in East Melbourne was also designed under Stephenson & Meldrum architects (1934) and constructed by W C Burne (1935). The original six story reinforced concrete hospital was designed in the inter-war Functionalist style, characterised by prominent staircases, deep balconies, simple interiors, large windows and a streamline design. It is said to be the first of a new generation of Modern Australian hospitals which were based on European modernist principles; It employed the “stark white surfaces of the German and French modernists such as Gropius and Corbusier” (“The Mercy Hospital” 2011, para.2).
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| FIGURE.1 - The Mercy Hospital, East Melbourne (1934) |
Stephenson & Meldrum later designed other hospitals such as the Freemason’s Hospital (1936), Bethesda Hospital (1936), part of the Royal Women’s Hospital (1942), and in particular the Royal Melbourne Hospital (1938-1942).
The publicity of these hospitals during the interwar period played a significant role in each hospitals success, as well as the new identity of Australian hospitals as a whole. Hospitals were advertised in terms of embracing modernism and scientific progress. Typical advertising of hospitals were located in newspapers and annual reports. The newspaper, The Melbourne Herald, proclaimed the new Prince Henry’s hospital in Sydney as a “wonder hospital” as it neared its completion in 1936. Advertising also focused on technical achievements in hospital design, such as another Melbourne Herald piece claiming a new hospital in Hobart to be an “electric wonder hospital” because it was designed to be “noiseless, smokeless, and completely equipped with electronic machinery and labour saving devises that its operation will be watched with interest by hospital architects and managements throughout the world” (Logan 2009, p.82). Other hospitals during this era were advertised with mention of being fully air-conditioned, allowing sunlight and fresh air to patients.
Images or sketches of hospitals were almost always included in advertisements and played a powerful part in its publicity. A series of annual reports on the Royal Melbourne Hospital is an example of this; A black and white image located on the back of the 1937-1938 Annual report displays a nurse kneeling next to candles praying and looking up towards the Royal Melbourne Hospital. The hospital is lit up and surrounded by darkness and gloom to represent the answer to the nurse’s prayers.
In the following year, another annual report for the Royal Melbourne Hospital was produced displaying a similar image; Three nurses now stand upon a balcony looking down and pointing towards the hospital which is again lit up and surrounded by darkness and gloom. The image was named The Vision Splendid;
“Dawn – and the night nurses just relieved from duty conjure up visions of another dawning. From the mists of hope long deferred will soon arise their ‘sunshine’ Hospital at Parkville. And you can help convert to reality this vision portrayed so graphically on our back cover. A public appeal for funds will be made from March 1 to May 31, 1940” (Logan 2009, p.85).
In both images, the Royal Melbourne Hospital is portrayed as being a ‘beacon of modernity,’ providing a source of light and health as a dream-like haven. Other Australian hospitals followed in the footsteps of the Royal Melbourne Hospital’s publicity, and hospitals were now regularly seen in the press. Fetes and other fundraising activities at hospitals also helped in the publicity as the public were welcomed into hospital grounds in a fun and enjoyable way. Hospital publicity helped introduce modernism and modernisation to the public, who may have initially been fearful of new change within society. The publicity also gained hospitals financial support and public trust, thus supporting hospitals success in the future.
The role of hospitals and hospital design during the interwar period played a very important part in the transition towards modernisation in Australia. This evolution in Australian architecture was made possible through not only the new technologies, but also the modernist architects such as Stephenson & Meldrum and Leighton Irwin & Co. whose contributions were vital in creating a new identity for hospitals and also a new modern lifestyle within Australia. Thanks to modernism, modernity and modernisation within the Australian architectural context, hospitals are still seen through a positive light, and should continue in future years.
Leighton Irwin & Co. had less of an impact in the field of hospital design than Stephenson & Meldrum, however still significant. Leighton Irwin & Co. were responsible for the architecture of Australian hospitals such as the Mildura Base (1934), Prince Henry’s (1936-1939), Royal Hobart (1938) and Broken Hill General hospital (1939). The Mildura Base Hospital is just one example demonstrating the European modern functionalist style by Leighton Irwin & Co. It was also designed to maximise sunlight and ventilation as much as possible.
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| FIGURE.2 - The Mildura Base Hospital, Mildura (1934) |
Images or sketches of hospitals were almost always included in advertisements and played a powerful part in its publicity. A series of annual reports on the Royal Melbourne Hospital is an example of this; A black and white image located on the back of the 1937-1938 Annual report displays a nurse kneeling next to candles praying and looking up towards the Royal Melbourne Hospital. The hospital is lit up and surrounded by darkness and gloom to represent the answer to the nurse’s prayers.
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| FIGURE.3 - “A Prayer for the New Hospital” |
In the following year, another annual report for the Royal Melbourne Hospital was produced displaying a similar image; Three nurses now stand upon a balcony looking down and pointing towards the hospital which is again lit up and surrounded by darkness and gloom. The image was named The Vision Splendid;
“Dawn – and the night nurses just relieved from duty conjure up visions of another dawning. From the mists of hope long deferred will soon arise their ‘sunshine’ Hospital at Parkville. And you can help convert to reality this vision portrayed so graphically on our back cover. A public appeal for funds will be made from March 1 to May 31, 1940” (Logan 2009, p.85).
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| FIGURE.4 - “The Vision Splendid” |
In both images, the Royal Melbourne Hospital is portrayed as being a ‘beacon of modernity,’ providing a source of light and health as a dream-like haven. Other Australian hospitals followed in the footsteps of the Royal Melbourne Hospital’s publicity, and hospitals were now regularly seen in the press. Fetes and other fundraising activities at hospitals also helped in the publicity as the public were welcomed into hospital grounds in a fun and enjoyable way. Hospital publicity helped introduce modernism and modernisation to the public, who may have initially been fearful of new change within society. The publicity also gained hospitals financial support and public trust, thus supporting hospitals success in the future.
The role of hospitals and hospital design during the interwar period played a very important part in the transition towards modernisation in Australia. This evolution in Australian architecture was made possible through not only the new technologies, but also the modernist architects such as Stephenson & Meldrum and Leighton Irwin & Co. whose contributions were vital in creating a new identity for hospitals and also a new modern lifestyle within Australia. Thanks to modernism, modernity and modernisation within the Australian architectural context, hospitals are still seen through a positive light, and should continue in future years.
REFERENCES
Logan, C. (2009). The Modern Hospital as Dream and Machine. Fabrications: The Journal Of The Society of Architectural Historians Australia & New Zealand, 19(1), 68-95.
Burke, A. (2012). Domestic Residence to Multi-story Building. The Lived Experience of Hospital Grounds in Melbourne before World War II. Health & Place, 18(5), (1015-1024).
Verderber, S. (2010). Innovations in Hospital Architecture. London, UK: Taylor & Francis.
Stephen, A. (2008). Introduction to Modern Times: The Untold Story of Modernism in Australia. Carlton, Vic: Meigunyah Press.
Willis, J. (2002). Machine for Healing. Retrieved from http://www.architecturemedia.com/aa/aaissue.php?issueid=200207&article=9&typeon=2
Unknown. (2011). Nationally Significant 20th-Century Architecture: Mercy Hospital (former). Retrieved from http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:bzcRWtYgyEoJ:https://www.architecture.com.au/i-cms_file%3Fpage%3D220/VIC-MercyHospital.pdf+&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=au
Unknown. (2013). Former Mildura Base Hospital. Retrieved from http://vhd.heritage.vic.gov.au/vhd/heritagevic?timeout=yes#detail_places;6165
FIGURE.1
http://www.slv.vic.gov.au/pcards/0/0/2/im/pc002434.jpg
http://www.slv.vic.gov.au/pcards/0/0/2/im/pc002434.jpg
FIGURE.2
http://museumvictoria.com.au/collections/itemimages/152/668/152668_large.jpg
http://museumvictoria.com.au/collections/itemimages/152/668/152668_large.jpg
FIGURE.3
Buggey, T. (2007, Summer). Storyboard for Ivan's morning routine. Diagram. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 9(3), 151. Retrieved December 14, 2007, from Academic Search Premier database.
Buggey, T. (2007, Summer). Storyboard for Ivan's morning routine. Diagram. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 9(3), 151. Retrieved December 14, 2007, from Academic Search Premier database.
FIGURE.4
Buggey, T. (2007, Summer). Storyboard for Ivan's morning routine. Diagram. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 9(3), 151. Retrieved December 14, 2007, from Academic Search Premier database.
Buggey, T. (2007, Summer). Storyboard for Ivan's morning routine. Diagram. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 9(3), 151. Retrieved December 14, 2007, from Academic Search Premier database.
